TemplateProxy.cxx

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// Bindings
#include "CPyCppyy.h"
#include "TemplateProxy.h"
#include "CPPClassMethod.h"
#include "CPPConstructor.h"
#include "CPPFunction.h"
#include "CPPMethod.h"
#include "CPPOverload.h"
#include "PyCallable.h"
#include "PyStrings.h"
#include "Utility.h"
 
// Standard
#include <algorithm>
 
 
namespace CPyCppyy {
 
//- helper for ctypes conversions --------------------------------------------
static PyObject* TC2CppName(PyObject* pytc, const char* cpd, bool allow_voidp)
{
    const char* name = nullptr;
    if (CPyCppyy_PyText_Check(pytc)) {
        char tc = ((char*)CPyCppyy_PyText_AsString(pytc))[0];
        switch (tc) {
            case '?': name = "bool";               break;
            case 'c': name = "char";               break;
            case 'b': name = "char";               break;
            case 'B': name = "unsigned char";      break;
            case 'h': name = "short";              break;
            case 'H': name = "unsigned short";     break;
            case 'i': name = "int";                break;
            case 'I': name = "unsigned int";       break;
            case 'l': name = "long";               break;
            case 'L': name = "unsigned long";      break;
            case 'q': name = "long long";          break;
            case 'Q': name = "unsigned long long"; break;
            case 'f': name = "float";              break;
            case 'd': name = "double";             break;
            case 'g': name = "long double";        break;
            case 'z':   // special case for C strings, ignore cpd
                return CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString(std::string{"const char*"}.c_str());
            default:  name = (allow_voidp ? "void*" : nullptr); break;
        }
    }
 
    if (name)
        return CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString((std::string{name}+cpd).c_str());
    return nullptr;
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
TemplateInfo::TemplateInfo() : fPyClass(nullptr), fNonTemplated(nullptr),
    fTemplated(nullptr), fLowPriority(nullptr), fDoc(nullptr)
{
    /* empty */
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
TemplateInfo::~TemplateInfo()
{
    Py_XDECREF(fPyClass);
 
    Py_XDECREF(fDoc);
    Py_DECREF(fNonTemplated);
    Py_DECREF(fTemplated);
    Py_DECREF(fLowPriority);
 
    for (const auto& p : fDispatchMap) {
        for (const auto& c : p.second) {
            Py_DECREF(c.second);
        }
    }
}
 
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
void TemplateProxy::MergeOverload(CPPOverload* mp) {
// Store overloads of this templated method.
    bool isGreedy = false;
    for (auto pc : mp->fMethodInfo->fMethods) {
        if (pc->IsGreedy()) {
            isGreedy = true;
            break;
        }
    }
 
    CPPOverload* cppol = isGreedy ? fTI->fLowPriority : fTI->fNonTemplated;
    cppol->MergeOverload(mp);
}
 
void TemplateProxy::AdoptMethod(PyCallable* pc) {
// Store overload of this templated method.
    CPPOverload* cppol = pc->IsGreedy() ? fTI->fLowPriority : fTI->fNonTemplated;
    cppol->AdoptMethod(pc);
}
 
void TemplateProxy::AdoptTemplate(PyCallable* pc)
{
// Store known template methods.
    fTI->fTemplated->AdoptMethod(pc);
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
PyObject* TemplateProxy::Instantiate(const std::string& fname,
    CPyCppyy_PyArgs_t args, size_t nargsf, Utility::ArgPreference pref, int* pcnt)
{
// Instantiate (and cache) templated methods, return method if any
    std::string proto = "";
 
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
    bool isNS = (((CPPScope*)fTI->fPyClass)->fFlags & CPPScope::kIsNamespace);
    if (!isNS && !fSelf && CPyCppyy_PyArgs_GET_SIZE(args, nargsf)) {
        args   += 1;
        nargsf -= 1;
    }
#endif
 
    Py_ssize_t argc = CPyCppyy_PyArgs_GET_SIZE(args, nargsf);
    if (argc != 0) {
        PyObject* tpArgs = PyTuple_New(argc);
        for (Py_ssize_t i = 0; i < argc; ++i) {
            PyObject* itemi = CPyCppyy_PyArgs_GET_ITEM(args, i);
 
            bool bArgSet = false;
 
        // special case for arrays
            PyObject* pytc = PyObject_GetAttr(itemi, PyStrings::gTypeCode);
            if (pytc) {
                PyObject* pyptrname = TC2CppName(pytc, "*", true);
                if (pyptrname) {
                    PyTuple_SET_ITEM(tpArgs, i, pyptrname);
                    bArgSet = true;
                // string added, but not counted towards nStrings
                }
                Py_DECREF(pytc); pytc = nullptr;
            } else
                PyErr_Clear();
 
        // if not arg set, try special case for ctypes
            if (!bArgSet) pytc = PyObject_GetAttr(itemi, PyStrings::gCTypesType);
 
            if (!bArgSet && pytc) {
                PyObject* pyactname = TC2CppName(pytc, "&", false);
                if (!pyactname) {
                // _type_ of a pointer to c_type is that type, which will have a type
                    PyObject* newpytc = PyObject_GetAttr(pytc, PyStrings::gCTypesType);
                    Py_DECREF(pytc);
                    pytc = newpytc;
                    if (pytc) {
                        pyactname = TC2CppName(pytc, "*", false);
                    } else
                        PyErr_Clear();
                }
                Py_XDECREF(pytc); pytc = nullptr;
                if (pyactname) {
                    PyTuple_SET_ITEM(tpArgs, i, pyactname);
                    bArgSet = true;
                // string added, but not counted towards nStrings
                }
            } else
                PyErr_Clear();
 
            if (!bArgSet) {
            // normal case (may well fail)
                PyErr_Clear();
                PyObject* tp = (PyObject*)Py_TYPE(itemi);
                Py_INCREF(tp);
                PyTuple_SET_ITEM(tpArgs, i, tp);
            }
        }
 
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
        PyObject* pyargs = PyTuple_New(argc);
        for (Py_ssize_t i = 0; i < argc; ++i) {
            PyObject* item = CPyCppyy_PyArgs_GET_ITEM(args, i);
            Py_INCREF(item);
            PyTuple_SET_ITEM(pyargs, i, item);
        }
#else
        Py_INCREF(args);
        PyObject* pyargs = args;
#endif
        const std::string& name_v1 = \
            Utility::ConstructTemplateArgs(nullptr, tpArgs, pyargs, pref, 0, pcnt);
 
        Py_DECREF(pyargs);
        Py_DECREF(tpArgs);
        if (name_v1.size())
            proto = name_v1.substr(1, name_v1.size()-2);
    }
 
// the following causes instantiation as necessary
    Cppyy::TCppScope_t scope = ((CPPClass*)fTI->fPyClass)->fCppType;
    Cppyy::TCppMethod_t cppmeth = Cppyy::GetMethodTemplate(scope, fname, proto);
    if (cppmeth) {    // overload stops here
    // A successful instantiation needs to be cached to pre-empt future instantiations. There
    // are two names involved, the original asked (which may be partial) and the received.
    //
    // Caching scheme: if the match is exact, simply add the overload to the pre-existing
    // one, or create a new overload for later lookups. If the match is not exact, do the
    // same, but also create an alias. Only add exact matches to the set of known template
    // instantiations, to prevent piling on from different partial instantiations.
    //
    // TODO: this caches the lookup method before the call, meaning that failing overloads
    // can add already existing overloads to the set of methods.
 
        std::string resname = Cppyy::GetMethodFullName(cppmeth);
 
    // An initializer_list is preferred for the argument types, but should not leak into
    // the argument types. If it did, replace with vector and lookup anew.
        if (resname.find("initializer_list") != std::string::npos) {
            auto pos = proto.find("initializer_list");
            while (pos != std::string::npos) {
                proto.replace(pos, 16, "vector");
                pos = proto.find("initializer_list", pos + 6);
            }
 
            Cppyy::TCppMethod_t m2 = Cppyy::GetMethodTemplate(scope, fname, proto);
            if (m2 && m2 != cppmeth) {
            // replace if the new method with vector was found; otherwise just continue
            // with the previously found method with initializer_list.
                cppmeth = m2;
                resname = Cppyy::GetMethodFullName(cppmeth);
            }
        }
 
        bool bExactMatch = fname == resname;
 
    // lookup on existing name in case this was an overload, not a caching, failure
        PyObject* dct = PyObject_GetAttr(fTI->fPyClass, PyStrings::gDict);
        PyObject* pycachename = CPyCppyy_PyText_InternFromString(fname.c_str());
        PyObject* pyol = PyObject_GetItem(dct, pycachename);
        if (!pyol) PyErr_Clear();
        bool bIsCppOL = CPPOverload_Check(pyol);
 
        if (pyol && !bIsCppOL && !TemplateProxy_Check(pyol)) {
        // unknown object ... leave well alone
            Py_DECREF(pyol);
            Py_DECREF(pycachename);
            Py_DECREF(dct);
            return nullptr;
        }
 
    // find the full name if the requested one was partial
        PyObject* exact = nullptr;
        PyObject* pyresname = CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString(resname.c_str());
        if (!bExactMatch) {
            exact = PyObject_GetItem(dct, pyresname);
            if (!exact) PyErr_Clear();
        }
        Py_DECREF(dct);
 
        bool bIsConstructor = false, bNeedsRebind = true;
 
        PyCallable* meth = nullptr;
        if (Cppyy::IsNamespace(scope)) {
            meth = new CPPFunction(scope, cppmeth);
            bNeedsRebind = false;
        } else if (Cppyy::IsStaticMethod(cppmeth)) {
            meth = new CPPClassMethod(scope, cppmeth);
            bNeedsRebind = false;
        } else if (Cppyy::IsConstructor(cppmeth)) {
            bIsConstructor = true;
            meth = new CPPConstructor(scope, cppmeth);
        } else
            meth = new CPPMethod(scope, cppmeth);
 
    // Case 1/2: method simply did not exist before
        if (!pyol) {
        // actual overload to use (now owns meth)
            pyol = (PyObject*)CPPOverload_New(fname, meth);
            if (bIsConstructor) {
            // TODO: this is an ugly hack :(
                ((CPPOverload*)pyol)->fMethodInfo->fFlags |= \
                    CallContext::kIsCreator | CallContext::kIsConstructor;
            }
 
        // add to class dictionary
            PyType_Type.tp_setattro(fTI->fPyClass, pycachename, pyol);
        }
 
    // Case 3/4: pre-existing method that was either not found b/c the full
    // templated name was constructed in this call or it failed as overload
        else if (bIsCppOL) {
        // TODO: see above, since the call hasn't happened yet, this overload may
        // already exist and fail again.
            ((CPPOverload*)pyol)->AdoptMethod(meth);   // takes ownership
        }
 
    // Case 5: must be a template proxy, meaning that current template name is not
    // a template overload
        else {
            ((TemplateProxy*)pyol)->AdoptTemplate(meth->Clone());
            Py_DECREF(pyol);
            pyol = (PyObject*)CPPOverload_New(fname, meth);      // takes ownership
        }
 
    // Special Case if name was aliased (e.g. typedef in template instantiation)
        if (!exact && !bExactMatch) {
            PyType_Type.tp_setattro(fTI->fPyClass, pyresname, pyol);
        }
 
    // cleanup
        Py_DECREF(pyresname);
        Py_DECREF(pycachename);
 
    // retrieve fresh (for boundedness) and call
        PyObject* pymeth =
            CPPOverload_Type.tp_descr_get(pyol, bNeedsRebind ? fSelf : nullptr, (PyObject*)&CPPOverload_Type);
        Py_DECREF(pyol);
        return pymeth;
    }
 
    PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError, "Failed to instantiate \"%s(%s)\"", fname.c_str(), proto.c_str());
    return nullptr;
}
 
 
//= CPyCppyy template proxy construction/destruction =========================
static TemplateProxy* tpp_new(PyTypeObject*, PyObject*, PyObject*)
{
// Create a new empty template method proxy.
    TemplateProxy* pytmpl = PyObject_GC_New(TemplateProxy, &TemplateProxy_Type);
    pytmpl->fSelf         = nullptr;
    pytmpl->fTemplateArgs = nullptr;
    pytmpl->fWeakrefList  = nullptr;
    new (&pytmpl->fTI) TP_TInfo_t{};
    pytmpl->fTI = std::make_shared<TemplateInfo>();
 
    PyObject_GC_Track(pytmpl);
    return pytmpl;
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static Py_hash_t tpp_hash(TemplateProxy* self)
{
    return (Py_hash_t)self;
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static PyObject* tpp_richcompare(TemplateProxy* self, PyObject* other, int op)
{
    if (op == Py_EQ || op == Py_NE) {
        if (!TemplateProxy_CheckExact(other))
            Py_RETURN_FALSE;
 
        if (self->fTI == ((TemplateProxy*)other)->fTI)
            Py_RETURN_TRUE;
 
        Py_RETURN_FALSE;
    }
 
    Py_INCREF(Py_NotImplemented);
    return Py_NotImplemented;
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static int tpp_clear(TemplateProxy* pytmpl)
{
// Garbage collector clear of held python member objects.
    Py_CLEAR(pytmpl->fSelf);
    Py_CLEAR(pytmpl->fTemplateArgs);
 
    return 0;
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static void tpp_dealloc(TemplateProxy* pytmpl)
{
// Destroy the given template method proxy.
    if (pytmpl->fWeakrefList)
        PyObject_ClearWeakRefs((PyObject*)pytmpl);
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(pytmpl);
    tpp_clear(pytmpl);
    pytmpl->fTI.~TP_TInfo_t();
    PyObject_GC_Del(pytmpl);
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static int tpp_traverse(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, visitproc visit, void* arg)
{
// Garbage collector traverse of held python member objects.
    Py_VISIT(pytmpl->fSelf);
    Py_VISIT(pytmpl->fTemplateArgs);
 
    return 0;
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static PyObject* tpp_doc(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, void*)
{
    if (pytmpl->fTI->fDoc) {
        Py_INCREF(pytmpl->fTI->fDoc);
        return pytmpl->fTI->fDoc;
    }
 
// Forward to method proxies to doc all overloads
    PyObject* doc = nullptr;
    if (pytmpl->fTI->fNonTemplated->HasMethods())
        doc = PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)pytmpl->fTI->fNonTemplated, "__doc__");
    if (pytmpl->fTI->fTemplated->HasMethods()) {
        PyObject* doc2 = PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)pytmpl->fTI->fTemplated, "__doc__");
        if (doc && doc2) {
            CPyCppyy_PyText_AppendAndDel(&doc, CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString("\n"));
            CPyCppyy_PyText_AppendAndDel(&doc, doc2);
        } else if (!doc && doc2) {
            doc = doc2;
        }
    }
    if (pytmpl->fTI->fLowPriority->HasMethods()) {
        PyObject* doc2 = PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)pytmpl->fTI->fLowPriority, "__doc__");
        if (doc && doc2) {
            CPyCppyy_PyText_AppendAndDel(&doc, CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString("\n"));
            CPyCppyy_PyText_AppendAndDel(&doc, doc2);
        } else if (!doc && doc2) {
            doc = doc2;
        }
    }
 
    if (doc)
        return doc;
 
    return CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString(TemplateProxy_Type.tp_doc);
}
 
static int tpp_doc_set(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, PyObject *val, void *)
{
    Py_XDECREF(pytmpl->fTI->fDoc);
    Py_INCREF(val);
    pytmpl->fTI->fDoc = val;
    return 0;
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
//= CPyCppyy template proxy callable behavior ================================
 
#define TPPCALL_RETURN                                                       \
{ if (!errors.empty())                                                       \
      std::for_each(errors.begin(), errors.end(), Utility::PyError_t::Clear);\
  return result; }
 
static inline std::string targs2str(TemplateProxy* pytmpl)
{
    if (!pytmpl || !pytmpl->fTemplateArgs) return "";
    return CPyCppyy_PyText_AsString(pytmpl->fTemplateArgs);
}
 
static inline void UpdateDispatchMap(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, bool use_targs, uint64_t sighash, CPPOverload* pymeth)
{
// Memoize a method in the dispatch map after successful call; replace old if need be (may be
// with the same CPPOverload, just with more methods).
    bool bInserted = false;
    auto& v = pytmpl->fTI->fDispatchMap[use_targs ? targs2str(pytmpl) : ""];
 
    Py_INCREF(pymeth);
    for (auto& p : v) {
        if (p.first == sighash) {
            Py_DECREF(p.second);
            p.second = pymeth;
            bInserted = true;
        }
    }
    if (!bInserted) v.push_back(std::make_pair(sighash, pymeth));
}
 
static inline PyObject* SelectAndForward(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, CPPOverload* pymeth,
    CPyCppyy_PyArgs_t args, size_t nargsf, PyObject* kwds,
    bool implicitOkay, bool use_targs, uint64_t sighash, std::vector<Utility::PyError_t>& errors)
{
// Forward a call to known overloads, if any.
    if (pymeth->HasMethods()) {
        PyObject* pycall = CPPOverload_Type.tp_descr_get(
            (PyObject*)pymeth, pytmpl->fSelf, (PyObject*)&CPPOverload_Type);
 
        if (!implicitOkay)
            ((CPPOverload*)pycall)->fFlags |= CallContext::kNoImplicit;
 
    // now call the method with the arguments (loops internally)
        PyObject* result = CPyCppyy_tp_call(pycall, args, nargsf, kwds);
        Py_DECREF(pycall);
        if (result) {
            UpdateDispatchMap(pytmpl, use_targs, sighash, pymeth);
            TPPCALL_RETURN;
        }
        Utility::FetchError(errors);
    }
 
    return nullptr;
}
 
static inline PyObject* CallMethodImp(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, PyObject*& pymeth,
    CPyCppyy_PyArgs_t args, size_t nargsf, PyObject* kwds, bool impOK, uint64_t sighash)
{
// Actual call of a given overload: takes care of handlign of "self" and
// dereferences the overloaded method after use.
 
    PyObject* result;
    if (!impOK && CPPOverload_Check(pymeth))
        ((CPPOverload*)pymeth)->fFlags |= CallContext::kNoImplicit;
    bool isNS = (((CPPScope*)pytmpl->fTI->fPyClass)->fFlags & CPPScope::kIsNamespace);
    if (isNS && pytmpl->fSelf && pytmpl->fSelf != Py_None) {
    // this is a global method added a posteriori to the class
        PyCallArgs cargs{(CPPInstance*&)pytmpl->fSelf, args, nargsf, kwds};
        AdjustSelf(cargs);
        result = CPyCppyy_tp_call(pymeth, cargs.fArgs, cargs.fNArgsf, cargs.fKwds);
    } else {
        if (!pytmpl->fSelf && CPPOverload_Check(pymeth))
            ((CPPOverload*)pymeth)->fFlags &= ~CallContext::kFromDescr;
        result = CPyCppyy_tp_call(pymeth, args, nargsf, kwds);
    }
 
    if (result) {
        Py_XDECREF(((CPPOverload*)pymeth)->fSelf); ((CPPOverload*)pymeth)->fSelf = nullptr;    // unbind
        UpdateDispatchMap(pytmpl, true, sighash, (CPPOverload*)pymeth);
    }
 
    Py_DECREF(pymeth); pymeth = nullptr;
    return result;
}
 
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
static PyObject* tpp_vectorcall(
    TemplateProxy* pytmpl, PyObject* const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject* kwds)
#else
static PyObject* tpp_call(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, PyObject* args, PyObject* kwds)
#endif
{
// Dispatcher to the actual member method, several uses possible; in order:
//
// case 1: explicit template previously selected through subscript
//
// case 2: select known non-template overload
//
//    obj.method(a0, a1, ...)
//       => obj->method(a0, a1, ...)        // non-template
//
// case 3: select known template overload
//
//    obj.method(a0, a1, ...)
//       => obj->method(a0, a1, ...)        // all known templates
//
// case 4: auto-instantiation from types of arguments
//
//    obj.method(a0, a1, ...)
//       => obj->method<type(a0), type(a1), ...>(a0, a1, ...)
//
// Note: explicit instantiation needs to use [] syntax:
//
//    obj.method[type<a0>, type<a1>, ...](a0, a1, ...)
//
// case 5: low priority methods, such as ones that take void* arguments
//
 
// TODO: should previously instantiated templates be considered first?
 
#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x03080000
    size_t nargsf = PyTuple_GET_SIZE(args);
#endif
 
    PyObject *pymeth = nullptr, *result = nullptr;
 
// short-cut through memoization map
    Py_ssize_t argc = CPyCppyy_PyArgs_GET_SIZE(args, nargsf);
    uint64_t sighash = HashSignature(args, argc);
 
    CPPOverload* ol = nullptr;
    if (!pytmpl->fTemplateArgs) {
    // look for known signatures ...
        auto& v = pytmpl->fTI->fDispatchMap[""];
        for (const auto& p : v) {
            if (p.first == sighash) {
                ol = p.second;
                break;
            }
        }
 
        if (ol != nullptr) {
            if (!pytmpl->fSelf || pytmpl->fSelf == Py_None) {
                result = CPyCppyy_tp_call((PyObject*)ol, args, nargsf, kwds);
            } else {
                pymeth = CPPOverload_Type.tp_descr_get(
                    (PyObject*)ol, pytmpl->fSelf, (PyObject*)&CPPOverload_Type);
                result = CPyCppyy_tp_call(pymeth, args, nargsf, kwds);
                Py_DECREF(pymeth); pymeth = nullptr;
            }
            if (result)
                return result;
        }
    }
 
// container for collecting errors
    std::vector<Utility::PyError_t> errors;
    if (ol) Utility::FetchError(errors);
 
// case 1: explicit template previously selected through subscript
    if (pytmpl->fTemplateArgs) {
    // instantiate explicitly
        PyObject* pyfullname = CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString(pytmpl->fTI->fCppName.c_str());
        CPyCppyy_PyText_Append(&pyfullname, pytmpl->fTemplateArgs);
 
    // first, lookup by full name, if previously stored
        bool isNS = (((CPPScope*)pytmpl->fTI->fPyClass)->fFlags & CPPScope::kIsNamespace);
        if (pytmpl->fSelf && pytmpl->fSelf != Py_None && !isNS)
            pymeth = PyObject_GetAttr(pytmpl->fSelf, pyfullname);
        else  // by-passes custom scope getattr that searches into Cling
            pymeth = PyType_Type.tp_getattro(pytmpl->fTI->fPyClass, pyfullname);
 
    // attempt call if found (this may fail if there are specializations)
        if (CPPOverload_Check(pymeth)) {
        // since the template args are fully explicit, allow implicit conversion of arguments
            result = CallMethodImp(pytmpl, pymeth, args, nargsf, kwds, true, sighash);
            if (result) {
                Py_DECREF(pyfullname);
                TPPCALL_RETURN;
            }
            Utility::FetchError(errors);
        } else if (pymeth && PyCallable_Check(pymeth)) {
        // something different (user provided?)
            result = CPyCppyy_PyObject_Call(pymeth, args, nargsf, kwds);
            Py_DECREF(pymeth);
            if (result) {
                Py_DECREF(pyfullname);
                TPPCALL_RETURN;
            }
            Utility::FetchError(errors);
        } else if (!pymeth)
            PyErr_Clear();
 
    // not cached or failed call; try instantiation
        pymeth = pytmpl->Instantiate(
            CPyCppyy_PyText_AsString(pyfullname), args, nargsf, Utility::kNone);
        if (pymeth) {
        // attempt actual call; same as above, allow implicit conversion of arguments
            result = CallMethodImp(pytmpl, pymeth, args, nargsf, kwds, true, sighash);
            if (result) {
                Py_DECREF(pyfullname);
                TPPCALL_RETURN;
            }
        }
 
    // no drop through if failed (if implicit was desired, don't provide template args)
        Utility::FetchError(errors);
        PyObject* topmsg = CPyCppyy_PyText_FromFormat(
            "Could not find \"%s\" (set cppyy.set_debug() for C++ errors):", CPyCppyy_PyText_AsString(pyfullname));
        Py_DECREF(pyfullname);
        Utility::SetDetailedException(errors, topmsg /* steals */, PyExc_TypeError /* default error */);
 
        return nullptr;
    }
 
// case 2: select known non-template overload
    result = SelectAndForward(pytmpl, pytmpl->fTI->fNonTemplated, args, nargsf, kwds,
        true /* implicitOkay */, false /* use_targs */, sighash, errors);
    if (result)
        TPPCALL_RETURN;
 
// case 3: select known template overload
    result = SelectAndForward(pytmpl, pytmpl->fTI->fTemplated, args, nargsf, kwds,
        false /* implicitOkay */, true /* use_targs */, sighash, errors);
    if (result)
        TPPCALL_RETURN;
 
// case 4: auto-instantiation from types of arguments
    for (auto pref : {Utility::kReference, Utility::kPointer, Utility::kValue}) {
        // TODO: no need to loop if there are no non-instance arguments; also, should any
        // failed lookup be removed?
        int pcnt = 0;
        pymeth = pytmpl->Instantiate(pytmpl->fTI->fCppName, args, nargsf, pref, &pcnt);
        if (pymeth) {
        // attempt actual call; argument based, so do not allow implicit conversions
            result = CallMethodImp(pytmpl, pymeth, args, nargsf, kwds, false, sighash);
            if (result) TPPCALL_RETURN;
        }
        Utility::FetchError(errors);
        if (!pcnt) break;         // preference never used; no point trying others
    }
 
// case 5: low priority methods, such as ones that take void* arguments
    result = SelectAndForward(pytmpl, pytmpl->fTI->fLowPriority, args, nargsf, kwds,
        false /* implicitOkay */, false /* use_targs */, sighash, errors);
    if (result)
        TPPCALL_RETURN;
 
// error reporting is fraud, given the numerous steps taken, but more details seems better
    if (!errors.empty()) {
        PyObject* topmsg = CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString("Template method resolution failed:");
        Utility::SetDetailedException(errors, topmsg /* steals */, PyExc_TypeError /* default error */);
    } else {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError, "cannot resolve method template call for \'%s\'",
            pytmpl->fTI->fCppName.c_str());
    }
 
    return nullptr;
}
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static TemplateProxy* tpp_descr_get(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, PyObject* pyobj, PyObject*)
{
// create and use a new template proxy (language requirement)
    TemplateProxy* newPyTmpl = (TemplateProxy*)TemplateProxy_Type.tp_alloc(&TemplateProxy_Type, 0);
 
// new method is to be bound to current object (may be nullptr)
    if (pyobj) {
        Py_INCREF(pyobj);
        newPyTmpl->fSelf = pyobj;
    } else {
        Py_INCREF(Py_None);
        newPyTmpl->fSelf = Py_None;
    }
 
    Py_XINCREF(pytmpl->fTemplateArgs);
    newPyTmpl->fTemplateArgs = pytmpl->fTemplateArgs;
 
// copy name, class, etc. pointers
    new (&newPyTmpl->fTI) std::shared_ptr<TemplateInfo>{pytmpl->fTI};
 
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
    newPyTmpl->fVectorCall = pytmpl->fVectorCall;
#endif
 
    return newPyTmpl;
}
 
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static PyObject* tpp_subscript(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, PyObject* args)
{
// Explicit template member lookup/instantiation; works by re-bounding. This method can
// not cache overloads as instantiations need not be unique for the argument types due
// to template specializations.
    TemplateProxy* typeBoundMethod = tpp_descr_get(pytmpl, pytmpl->fSelf, nullptr);
    Py_XDECREF(typeBoundMethod->fTemplateArgs);
    typeBoundMethod->fTemplateArgs = CPyCppyy_PyText_FromString(
        Utility::ConstructTemplateArgs(nullptr, args).c_str());
    return (PyObject*)typeBoundMethod;
}
 
//-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static PyObject* tpp_getuseffi(CPPOverload*, void*)
{
    return PyInt_FromLong(0); // dummy (__useffi__ unused)
}
 
//-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static int tpp_setuseffi(CPPOverload*, PyObject*, void*)
{
    return 0;                 // dummy (__useffi__ unused)
}
 
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
static PyMappingMethods tpp_as_mapping = {
    nullptr, (binaryfunc)tpp_subscript, nullptr
};
 
static PyGetSetDef tpp_getset[] = {
    {(char*)"__doc__", (getter)tpp_doc, (setter)tpp_doc_set, nullptr, nullptr},
    {(char*)"__useffi__", (getter)tpp_getuseffi, (setter)tpp_setuseffi,
      (char*)"unused", nullptr},
    {(char*)nullptr,   nullptr,         nullptr, nullptr, nullptr}
};
 
 
//----------------------------------------------------------------------------
void TemplateProxy::Set(const std::string& cppname, const std::string& pyname, PyObject* pyclass)
{
// Initialize the proxy for the given 'pyclass.'
    fSelf         = nullptr;
    fTemplateArgs = nullptr;
 
    fTI->fCppName = cppname;
    Py_XINCREF(pyclass);
    fTI->fPyClass = pyclass;
 
    std::vector<PyCallable*> dummy;
    fTI->fNonTemplated = CPPOverload_New(pyname, dummy);
    fTI->fTemplated    = CPPOverload_New(pyname, dummy);
    fTI->fLowPriority  = CPPOverload_New(pyname, dummy);
 
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
    fVectorCall = (vectorcallfunc)tpp_vectorcall;
#endif
}
 
 
//= CPyCppyy method proxy access to internals ================================
static PyObject* tpp_overload(TemplateProxy* pytmpl, PyObject* args)
{
// Select and call a specific C++ overload, based on its signature.
    const char* sigarg = nullptr;
    PyObject* sigarg_tuple = nullptr;
    int want_const = -1;
 
    Cppyy::TCppScope_t scope = (Cppyy::TCppScope_t) 0;
    Cppyy::TCppMethod_t cppmeth = (Cppyy::TCppMethod_t) 0;
    std::string proto;
 
    if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, const_cast<char*>("s|i:__overload__"), &sigarg, &want_const)) {
        want_const = PyTuple_GET_SIZE(args) == 1 ? -1 : want_const;
 
    // check existing overloads in order
        PyObject* ol = pytmpl->fTI->fNonTemplated->FindOverload(sigarg, want_const);
        if (ol) return ol;
        PyErr_Clear();
        ol = pytmpl->fTI->fTemplated->FindOverload(sigarg, want_const);
        if (ol) return ol;
        PyErr_Clear();
        ol = pytmpl->fTI->fLowPriority->FindOverload(sigarg, want_const);
        if (ol) return ol;
 
        proto = Utility::ConstructTemplateArgs(nullptr, args);
 
        scope = ((CPPClass*)pytmpl->fTI->fPyClass)->fCppType;
        cppmeth = Cppyy::GetMethodTemplate(
            scope, pytmpl->fTI->fCppName, proto.substr(1, proto.size()-2));
    } else if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, const_cast<char*>("O|i:__overload__"), &sigarg_tuple, &want_const)) {
        PyErr_Clear();
        want_const = PyTuple_GET_SIZE(args) == 1 ? -1 : want_const;
 
    // check existing overloads in order
        PyObject* ol = pytmpl->fTI->fNonTemplated->FindOverload(sigarg_tuple, want_const);
        if (ol) return ol;
        PyErr_Clear();
        ol = pytmpl->fTI->fTemplated->FindOverload(sigarg_tuple, want_const);
        if (ol) return ol;
        PyErr_Clear();
        ol = pytmpl->fTI->fLowPriority->FindOverload(sigarg_tuple, want_const);
        if (ol) return ol;
 
        proto.reserve(128);
        proto.push_back('<');
        Py_ssize_t n = PyTuple_Size(sigarg_tuple);
        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
            PyObject *pItem = PyTuple_GetItem(sigarg_tuple, i);
            if(!CPyCppyy_PyText_Check(pItem)) {
                PyErr_Format(PyExc_LookupError, "argument types should be in string format");
                return (PyObject*) nullptr;
            }
            proto.append(CPyCppyy_PyText_AsString(pItem));
            if (i < n - 1)
                proto.push_back(',');
        }
        proto.push_back('>');
 
        scope = ((CPPClass*)pytmpl->fTI->fPyClass)->fCppType;
        cppmeth = Cppyy::GetMethodTemplate(
            scope, pytmpl->fTI->fCppName, proto.substr(1, proto.size()-2));
    } else {
        PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError, "Unexpected arguments to __overload__");
        return nullptr;
    }
 
// else attempt instantiation
    PyObject* pytype = 0, *pyvalue = 0, *pytrace = 0;
    PyErr_Fetch(&pytype, &pyvalue, &pytrace);
 
    if (!cppmeth) {
        PyErr_Restore(pytype, pyvalue, pytrace);
        return nullptr;
    }
 
    Py_XDECREF(pytype);
    Py_XDECREF(pyvalue);
    Py_XDECREF(pytrace);
 
    // TODO: the next step should be consolidated with Instantiate()
    PyCallable* meth = nullptr;
    if (Cppyy::IsNamespace(scope)) {
        meth = new CPPFunction(scope, cppmeth);
    } else if (Cppyy::IsStaticMethod(cppmeth)) {
        meth = new CPPClassMethod(scope, cppmeth);
    } else if (Cppyy::IsConstructor(cppmeth)) {
       meth = new CPPConstructor(scope, cppmeth);
    } else
        meth = new CPPMethod(scope, cppmeth);
 
    return (PyObject*)CPPOverload_New(pytmpl->fTI->fCppName+proto, meth);
}
 
static PyMethodDef tpp_methods[] = {
    {(char*)"__overload__", (PyCFunction)tpp_overload, METH_VARARGS,
      (char*)"select overload for dispatch" },
    {(char*)nullptr, nullptr, 0, nullptr }
};
 
 
//= CPyCppyy template proxy type =============================================
PyTypeObject TemplateProxy_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
    (char*)"cppyy.TemplateProxy",      // tp_name
    sizeof(TemplateProxy),             // tp_basicsize
    0,                                 // tp_itemsize
    (destructor)tpp_dealloc,           // tp_dealloc
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
    offsetof(TemplateProxy, fVectorCall),
#else
    0,                                 // tp_vectorcall_offset / tp_print
#endif
    0,                                 // tp_getattr
    0,                                 // tp_setattr
    0,                                 // tp_as_async / tp_compare
    0,                                 // tp_repr
    0,                                 // tp_as_number
    0,                                 // tp_as_sequence
    &tpp_as_mapping,                   // tp_as_mapping
    (hashfunc)tpp_hash,                // tp_hash
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
    (ternaryfunc)PyVectorcall_Call,    // tp_call
#else
    (ternaryfunc)tpp_call,             // tp_call
#endif
    0,                                 // tp_str
    0,                                 // tp_getattro
    0,                                 // tp_setattro
    0,                                 // tp_as_buffer
    Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
        | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL | Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR
#endif
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03120000
        | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF
#endif
        ,                              // tp_flags
    (char*)"cppyy template proxy (internal)",     // tp_doc
    (traverseproc)tpp_traverse,        // tp_traverse
    (inquiry)tpp_clear,                // tp_clear
    (richcmpfunc)tpp_richcompare,      // tp_richcompare
    offsetof(TemplateProxy, fWeakrefList),        // tp_weaklistoffset
    0,                                 // tp_iter
    0,                                 // tp_iternext
    tpp_methods,                       // tp_methods
    0,                                 // tp_members
    tpp_getset,                        // tp_getset
    0,                                 // tp_base
    0,                                 // tp_dict
    (descrgetfunc)tpp_descr_get,       // tp_descr_get
    0,                                 // tp_descr_set
    0,                                 // tp_dictoffset
    0,                                 // tp_init
    0,                                 // tp_alloc
    (newfunc)tpp_new,                  // tp_new
    0,                                 // tp_free
    0,                                 // tp_is_gc
    0,                                 // tp_bases
    0,                                 // tp_mro
    0,                                 // tp_cache
    0,                                 // tp_subclasses
    0                                  // tp_weaklist
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x02030000
    , 0                                // tp_del
#endif
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x02060000
    , 0                                // tp_version_tag
#endif
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03040000
    , 0                                // tp_finalize
#endif
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
    , 0                                // tp_vectorcall
#endif
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030c0000
    , 0                                // tp_watched
#endif
};
 
} // namespace CPyCppyy